- Summary
               ------------French
               version
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
               
                  
                     | 
                        Inorganic
                        Lead and Ceramics
                        
                         by
                        Edouard Bastarache 
                      | 
                   
                
                
               
               -  
 
               
               - Sources
               :
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - The
               inorganic compounds which are of concern in ceramics
               are : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - -basic
               lead carbonate 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2,
 
               
               - -lead
               frits, including lead-boro silicate.
 
               
               - -lead
               oxides : 
 
               
               - -red
               (minium) Pb3O4 , 
 
               
               - -yellow
               (litharge) PbO.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Stability
               :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-Lead
               Carbonate :
 
               
               - This
               product is unstable under the following conditions :
               when heated it decomposes at 400 degrees Celsius and
               emits lead monoxide, carbon monoxide and carbon
               dioxide. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - II-Lead
               Frits :
 
               
               - In
               the relevant literature, we have not found any
               information relating to thermal breakdown products for
               the following lead frits: lead bisilicate, lead
               sesquisilicate and lead-boro-silicate. 
 
               
               - On
               the other hand lead silicate, PbO.SiO2, emits toxic
               lead fumes when heated to decomposition. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - III-Red
               Lead Oxide :
 
               
               - This
               product is unstable under the following conditions :
               when heated to decomposition (more than 500 degrees
               Celsius), there is release of oxygene and emission of
               toxic lead fumes. 
 
               
               -   
 
               
               - IV-Yellow
               Lead Oxide :
 
               
               - This
               product is unstable under the following conditions :
               when heated between 300 to 400 degrees Celsius, it is
               converted to lead tetroxide. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Absorption
               :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Inorganic
               lead is absorbed only by the respiratory and digestive
               tracts, except for metallic lead, which can penetrate
               the skin in a negligible way.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Toxicological
               Properties :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-Lead
               Toxicokinetics : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-
               Pulmonary absorption :
 
               
               - 1-Pulmonary
               absorption of lead depends on the size of particles; a
               small proportion of particles of size greater than 0,5
               µm is retained at the pulmonary level. The
               retention of particles having a diameter smaller than
               0,5 µm is inversely proportional to their size.
               
 
               
               - 2-Pulmonary
               absorption also depends on respiratory frequency.
               
 
               
               - 3-
               The pulmonary deposition rate of lead present in the
               air is approximately 30 to 50%. 
 
               
               - 4-
               Lead which penetrates deeply into the lungs is almost
               completely absorbed. The rest of lead particles which
               are found in the higher parts of the respiratory
               tract, are directed towards the gastro-intestinal
               system where they are ingested. 
 
               
               - 5-Lead
               does not accumulate in the respiratory tract.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-Gastrointestinal
               absorption :
 
               
               - 1-Gastrointestinal
               absorption of lead varies according to the
               physiological state of the individual (fast, age) and
               the type of lead compound ingested. Thus, the rate of
               absorption may vary in the fasting adult from 5-15 %
               to 60-80 %. It is approximately 30 to 50 % in the
               child. 
 
               
               - 2-Absorption
               is influenced by the size of the ingested particles
               (the smallest being better absorbed). 
 
               
               - 3-Absorption
               of lead, which takes place in the duodenal region of
               the small intestine, seems to occur by a saturable
               mechanism. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - C-Distribution
               :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 1-Independently
               from the route of absorption, absorpbed lead passes
               into the blood circulation where more than 90 % finds
               itself bound to erythrocytes (it is fixed especially
               inside the cell rather than on the membrane). The
               remainder diffuses into the serum. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 2-Studies
               undertaken in man indicate that absorbed lead is
               distributed primarily in 3 compartments: the first
               compartment is blood, the second is made up of soft
               tissues (central and peripheral nervous systems,
               liver, kidneys and muscles) and the third one is
               composed of bone tissue. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - a-Several
               researchers have proposed refinements to this kinetic
               model, it has thus been proposed to subdivide the
               blood compartment into 4 in order to better take into
               account lead kinetics in the plasma and in the
               erythrocytes. It is also proposed to subdivide the
               bone compartment into 2 in order to better reflect the
               speed of turnover and bone tissue metabolism.
               
 
               
               - b-Thereafter
               a model was proposed taking into account the soft
               tissues with which the exchanges are fast and those
               with which they are slow. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - D-Metabolism
               :
 
               
               - Lead
               is not metabolized in the body.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - E-Excretion
               :
 
               
               - 1-
               Ingested lead that is not absorbed is directly
               excreted in the feces.
 
               
               - 2-Nearly
               80 % of the absorbed lead is eliminated by the urinary
               tract, approximately 16 % is eliminated via the bile
               and the remainder is eliminated in the saliva, sweat,
               hair and nails.There are significant inter-individual
               variations in the capacity of lead elimination.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - F-Half-life
               :
 
               
               - 1-In
               the adult, blood lead half-life is approximately 1
               month.
 
               
               - 2-The
               half-life in soft tissues (such as central and
               peripheral nervous systems, the liver, kidneys and
               muscles) is approximately 40 to 60 days. 
 
               
               - 3-The
               half-life in the bone compartment is approximately 20
               to 30 years 
 
               
               - 4-The
               whole body lead half-life depends on the body burden,
               which itself is related to the duration of exposure of
               workers. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - II-Interaction
               : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Lead
               toxicokinetics and toxicological effects can be
               affected by interactions with certain essential
               elements and nutriments: 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-The
               administration of calcium and phosphorus, at
               concentrations which can be found in an average meal,
               decreases lead gastrointestinal absorption by a factor
               of 6 in fasting adults. 
 
               
               - B-It
               would also seem that the daily intake of food fibers,
               thiamin and iron lowers blood lead level (BLL) in
               exposed workers.
 
               
               - C-Lead
               absorption is reduced by a calcium or zinc intake,
               probably by a competitive mechanism at the intestinal
               level. 
 
               
               - D-Lead
               absorption is enhanced by the intake of food high in
               fat. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - III-Acute
               Intoxication :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Acute
               intoxication is rare in the work environment.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - The
               inhalation of significant lead amounts can cause
               digestive disorders (vomiting, epigastric and
               abdominal pain, diarrhoea and black stools), renal
               disorders, hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders
               (encephalopathy, intracranial hypertension, convulsive
               coma). 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - IV-Chronic
               Intoxication :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-The
               effects of lead intoxication in man are the same
               whatever the route of entry into the body. They are
               generally described in terms of internal dose (amounts
               of lead in the blood ) rather than in terms of ambient
               level of 
 
               
               - exposure
               (mg/m³ or ppm). 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-One
               of the first symptoms of lead exposure is the
               appearance of digestive disorders. 
 
               
               - This
               results in colics (intense abdominal pains, nausea,
               vomiting), constipation, anorexia and a loss of
               weight. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - C-Articular
               and muscular pains in the extremities are also
               reported.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - D- A
               blue coloured line has been observed on the gingival
               tissues of people exposed to significant lead
               concentrations. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - E-Lead
               exerts certain blood effects. It induces anemia
               (caused by a reduction in the lifespan of red cells
               and by a fall of the synthesis of heme by enzymatic
               inhibition). It also involves an increased production
               of abnormal erythrocytes. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - F-Lead
               has effects on the nervous system thus being able to
               cause encephalopathy and peripheral neuropathy.
               
 
               
               - The
               first symptoms of encephalopathy can appear in the
               weeks following initial exposure to lead; these are
               irritability, lassitude, loss of appetite, reduction
               in the attention,headaches, jerked movements of the
               eyes, hallucinations, a deterioration of the cognitive
               functions (reduction in the performance in certain
               psychometric tests like, for example, eye-hand
               coordination, skills of verbal reasoning, memory,
               etc). 
 
               
               - Symptoms
               may worsen, sometimes abruptly, and one can observe
               delirium, convulsions, paralysis, coma and death.
               Peripheral neuropathy can result in muscular tremors,
               weakness of the upper limbs and paraesthesias of the
               lower limbs (pins and needles, tingling). 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - G-Workers
               exposed to lead present an increased risk of chronic
               nephrotoxicity. 
 
               
               - The
               lead levels which can cause such an effect seem to be
               a function of the duration of exposure. A review of
               several studies seems to indicate that lead can cause
               nephropathy at blood lead levels as low as 1,93
               µmol/l. 
 
               
               - Certain
               toxic effects are reversible whereas others are not. A
               recent study suggests that the exposure to low lead
               levels can cause renal problems in middle-age and old
               age men. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - H-Some
               studies suggest that there is a weak positive
               correlation between blood lead level (BLL) and an
               increase in blood pressure. However, it is currently
               premature to draw conclusions on this subject.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-There
               is some evidence that high lead doses could be
               responsible for cardiac lesions and disturbances in
               the electrocardiogram. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - J-According
               to some studies, lead could weaken the immune system.
               
 
               
               -   
 
               
               - Biological
               Monitoring :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-Biological
               parameter, biological index of exposure and time of
               blood sampling : 
               
               
A-Blood
               lead level (BLL):   
               
               - Variable
               according to different organizations, (time of blood
               sampling is discretionary); the ACGIH proposes 1,45
               µmol/L (level aiming at minimizing or preventing
               the effects being able to result in a persistent
               functional damage); 
 
               
               - the
               WHO and Lauwerys propose 1,93 µmol/L (maximum
               tolerable blood lead level); the level in non-exposed
               individuals is < 0,50 µmol/L. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-Zinc
               protoporphyrins (ZPP) : 
 
               
               - The
               time of blood sampling must be at least one month
               after the beginning of exposure. Lauwerys proposes
               0,67 µmol/L in order to prevent certain health
               effects. The level for non-exposed individuals is <
               0,32 µmol/L. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - II-Other
               Exposure Indicators :
 
               
               - Urinary
               aminolevulinic acid : an indicator of toxic effect;
               this test is less sensitive than the measurement of
               ZPP. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - III-Factors
               to be considered for interpretation :
 
               
               - -
               these values apply only to exposures to metallic lead
               or inorganic salts. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-BLL
               :
 
               
               - 1-possibility
               of absorption by the digestive tract;
 
               
               - 2-a
               BLL of about 2,42 µmol/L is expected in workers
               who are exposed, day after day, to lead air levels of
               0,15 mg/m³ ; 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-ZPP
               :
 
               
               - 1-hemolytic
               anemia, iron deficiency (increased ZPP); 
 
               
               - 2-erythropoietic
               protoporphyria (increased ZPP); increased
               carboxyhemoglobin, if the analysis of ZPP is carried
               out by hematofluorometry (method used by the IRSST,
               Quebec), it involves an undervaluation of the
               concentration of ZPP. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - IV-Correlation
               between lead blood concentrations and their toxic
               effects : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               
                  
                     | 
                         Blood
                        lead level (µmol/l) 
                      | 
                     
                         Effect
                         
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        <
                        0,48
                      | 
                     
                         Blood
                        lead level of a nonexposed person  
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        0,97
                        à 2,90
                      | 
                     
                         Increase
                        in the concentration of erythrocyte
                        protoporphyrins  
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        >
                        1,93
                      | 
                     
                         Increase
                        in the urinary concentration of
                        coproporphyrin  
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        2,41
                        à 2,90
                      | 
                     
                         Chronic
                        encephalopathy in the child  
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        >
                        3,86
                      | 
                     
                         Chronic
                        encephalopathy in the adult  
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        2,90
                        à 3,86
                      | 
                     
                         Peripheral
                        neuropathy  
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        3,38
                        à 4,80
                      | 
                     
                         Nephropathies
                         
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        3,86
                        à 4,80
                      | 
                     
                         Anemia
                         
                      | 
                   
                  
                     | 
                        3,86
                        à 14,5
                      | 
                     
                         Acute
                        encephalopathy  
                      | 
                   
                
                
               
               -  
 
               
               - V-Conversion
               factor for blood lead level : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - µg/l
               x 0,004826 = µmol/l 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - VI-Sensitive
               populations : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-People
               suffering from a neurological dysfonction;
 
               
               - B-People
               suffering from a renal disease;
 
               
               - C-People
               having certain genetic diseases, such as thalassemia,
               glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency,
               porphyrias, an excessive activity of the ALA synthase.
               
 
               
               - D-Children;
               
 
               
               - E-Pregnant
               or breast-feeding women;
 
               
               - F-The
               embryo or foetus;
 
               
               - G-Elderlies;
               
 
               
               - H-Smokers;
               
 
               
               - I-Alcoholics.
 
               
               -   
 
               
               - Carcinogenesis
               and Mutagenesis :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-Metallic
               Lead : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - ACGIH
               evaluation : Confirmed animal carcinogen (group A3).
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - II-Basic
               lead carbonate, yellow and red lead oxide :
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - IARC.evaluation:
               Probably carcinogenic to humans (group 2B).
               
 
               
               - ACGIH
               evaluation: Confirmed animal carcinogen (group A3).
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Occupational
               Hygiene :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-IDLH
               (Immediate Danger to Life and Health)
               :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-Basic
               Lead Carbonate :
 
               
               - 100
               Pb mg/m³ as Pb. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-Red
               Lead Oxide :
 
               
               - 100
               Pb mg/m³ as Pb.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - C-Yellow
               Lead Oxide :
 
               
               - 100
               mg/m³ as Pb. 
 
               
               -   
 
               
               - II-Evaluation
               of Exposure :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Exposure
               limit in Quebec :
 
               
               - Valeur
               d'exposition moyenne pondérée (VEMP) :
               0,15 mg/m³
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Note
 
               
               - Non-conventional
               schedule : Weekly 
 
               
               - Comments
               
 
               
               - Limit
               for dusts and fumes, expressed as Pb (lead).
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Prevention
               :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-
               Technical Methods :
 
               
               - Main
               measures are as follows:
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-Work
               organization :
 
               
               - Operations
               involving a hazard of lead exposure should not be
               dispersed in the factory, but on the contrary, put
               together.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-Ventilation
               :
 
               
               - Primarily,
               local aspiration systems at the place of generation of
               lead dusts, fumes and vapors. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - C-General
               cleanliness of workstations :
 
               
               - Regular
               washing with water to avoid accumulation of lead dust.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - D-Sanitary
               equipment :
 
               
               - To
               allow for adequate personal hygiene: sinks, showers,
               different lockers for work and town clothes, refectory
               away from workstations. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - E-
               Regular evaluation of lead concentration in the air
               :
 
               
               - It
               must be done at the workstation. Since in the
               industrial settings, the main route of entry is the
               respiratory tract, the mesurement of lead in the air
               allows to estimate the exposure hazard. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - F-Personal
               protection :
 
               
               - 1-A
               respiratory protection apparatus should be worn if the
               concentration in the work environment is greater than
               the VEMP (0,15 filter mg/m³)
 
               
               - Masks:
               they must be regularly cleaned and filters replaced.
               
 
               
               -  2-Personal
               hygiene: nobody should smoke nor eat in workshops. One
               must also incite workers to wash their hands regularly
               and to use shower/baths after each working day.
               Working clothes will not be carried home. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - II-
               Medical Methods :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-Pre-employment
               medical examination :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Subjects
               suffering from anemia, kidney diseases; pregnant or
               breast-feeding women, should be kept away from lead
               exposure. According to Cramer (1966), alcoholism would
               make workers more sensitive to the toxic action of
               lead. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-Periodical
               examination :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - It is
               necessary to seek and recognize the signs of lead
               impregnation and the first symptoms and clinical signs
               of lead poisoning, and to prescribe the biological
               tests cited above such as BLL and ZPP.
 
               
               - In
               the case of chronic intoxication, tests for kidney
               function can also be indicated.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - In
               the USA, the Action Level (AL) is .03 mg/m3 of air.
               The general industry standard requires that all
               employees exposed to or above the AL for more than 30
               days per year take part in a medical surveillance
               program provided by the employer, regardless of
               whether respiratory protection is used. Routine
               measurements of BLL and ZPP supplement the information
               provided by air lead measurements to guide prevention
               efforts. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - C-Medical
               Evaluations :
 
               
               - 1-General
               industry standard :
 
               
               - a- A
               medical examination must be undergone by all the
               candidates for employment where an exposure to lead
               higher than the AL during more than 30 days per year
               is encountered. This examination must comprise a
               clinical evaluation and laboratory tests. 
 
               
               - -Clinical
               Evaluation :General and lead-specific history and
               physical examination with special attention to
               hematological, neurological, (central and peripheral
               ), pulmonary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,
               musculoskeletal, renal, and reproductive
               systems.Medical clearance to wear respirator, if used,
               applies to all categories. 
 
               
               - -Laboratory
               Testing: it must include BLL, ZPP, blood count with
               blood smear, urea and plasma creatinine , complete
               urinalysis. A sperm analysis or pregnancy test could
               be made if requested by the employee, and any other
               test the physician deems necessary.
 
               
               - -Periodicity:
               it will be necessary to repeat BLL and ZPP
               measurements every 6 months. 
 
               
               - b-
               When the last BLL was = or > 1.93 µmol/L. but
               lower than the threshold recommended to carry out
               Medical Removal Protection.
 
               
               - -Clinical
               Evaluation: complete evaluation as described above,
               annually. 
 
               
               - -Laboratory
               Testing : complete lab panel if not done within last
               12 months (see above). Repeat BLL and ZPP every two
               (2) months until two (2) consecutive BLLs are <
               1.93 µmol/L.
 
               
               - c-
               When a single BLL is = or > 2.896 µmol/L. or
               when the average of the last three (3) BLLs, or of all
               the BLLs of the previous six (6) months are = or >
               than 2.413 µmol/L. (whichever covers a longer
               time period), Medical Removal Protection becomes
               mandatory. 
 
               
               - -Clinical
               Evaluation: as soon as the Medical Removal Protection
               is initiated. See the clinical evaluation described
               above. 
 
               
               - -Laboratory
               Testing: Complete lab panel (see above). Repeat BLL
               and ZPP at least monthly until two (2) consecutive
               BLLs are =or< 1.93 µmol/L. 
 
               
               - d-
               When an employee reports signs or symptoms of lead
               toxiciy, desires advice about effects of lead exposure
               (on reproductive system, child bearing, etc.), has
               increased risk of material impairment to health due to
               lead exposure, or has difficulty breathing with
               respirator use. 
 
               
               - -Clinical
               Evaluation: as soon as possible (see
               above).
 
               
               - -Laboratory
               Testing: as deemed appropriate by the physician based
               on individual case needs.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 2-Construction
               Industry Standard : 
 
               
               - It
               will not be discussed here because it is
               irrelevant.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - D-
               Medical Removal Protection : 
 
               
               - The
               physician must recommend to the employer that an
               employee be removed from lead exposure and enter a
               Medical Removal Protection program if any of the
               following conditions are met.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 1-
               General Industry Standard :
 
               
               - a-A
               single BLL=or> 2.896 µmol/L, or
 
               
               - b-An
               average of the last three (3) BLLs or of all BBLs over
               the previous 6 months (whichever covers a longer
               period of time) is=or>2.413 µmol/L.
               
 
               
               - c-The
               employee has a « detected medical condition
               » that places him or her at increased risk of
               « material impairment to health ». The
               physician is given the discretion to make such a
               determination on an individual case basis.
 
               
               - d-When
               the physician detects symptoms and/or clinical signs
               usually associated with lead poisoning even if the BLL
               is lower than the standards cited above, or when the
               employee is pregnant. 
 
               
               - e-When
               the employee is withdrawn from work, Laboratory
               Testing (Biological Monitoring) must be done at least
               once per month. 
 
               
               - f-When
               the BLL is twice consecutively = or < 1.93
               µmol/L. the physician may recommend the return to
               work provided that the employer has taken proper steps
               to control lead exposure and that the symptoms/
               clinical signs of the intoxication have disappeared.
               
 
               
               - g-During
               Medical Removal Protection a physician may recommend
               that an employee, if physically able, returns to work
               in a place where there is no lead exposure, or in a
               place where lead exposure is below the AL (Action
               Level) which is below .03 mg/m3. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 2-Construction
               Industry Standard : 
 
               
               - It
               will not be discussed here because it is
               irrelevant.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Treatment
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - I-Acute
               Intoxication :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - It
               consists of :
 
               
               - a
               gastric lavage with a solution precipitating lead in
               the form of insoluble sulphate, for example :
               
 
               
               - -
               soda sulphate,
 
               
               - -
               magnesia sulphate aa 40g,
 
               
               - -
               water ad 1 liter;
 
               
               - -
               daily injection of calcium EDTA, in association with
               BAL in the child;
 
               
               - -
               need to treat shock, especially by the parenteral
               rehydration. 
 
               
               -   
 
               
               - II-Chronic
               Intoxication :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - A-Chelation
               Therapy :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 1-EDTA
               (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) is a chelating agent
               capable of fixing lead, calcium and other cations to
               form a non-ionized complex. To avoid hypocalcemy, a
               salt of calcium or disodium should be given. Lead (but
               also other metals: zinc, copper, iron) will replace
               calcium. The soluble complex lead-EDTA is quickly
               excreted by the kidneys (glomerular filtration).
               
 
               
               - Since
               EDTA is toxic to the kidneys, especially to the
               glomerular basal membrane, its administration should
               be done with prudence in the presence of renal
               ailments. Renal function should be monitored during
               treatment. The maximum amount to be given should not
               exceed 50mg/kg/day. 
 
               
               - Treatment
               must last 5 days and if urinary lead remains high, it
               can be repeated after a period of rest of at least 4
               to 5 days. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 2-DTPA
               (diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid trisodium salt,
               monocalcic) seems slightly more effective than EDTA.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 3-DMSA
               (dimercaptosuccinic acid) given orally in gradually
               increasing amounts has been recommended. Its
               administration is more effective than EDTA when the
               presence of lead in the digestive tract can be
               excluded. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 4-Double
               chelation therapy with EDTA and DMSA has been
               recommended in the case of significant intoxication.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 5-In
               the case of lead encephalopathy in the child, it seems
               that the combined administration of BAL and EDTA is
               preferable to EDTA alone. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Finally,
               let us remember that the preventive administration of
               a chelating agent is to be prohibited. Only the
               control of the work environment represents the method
               of adequate prevention. A drug cannot replace
               industrial hygiene measures.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - B-Symptomatic
               Treatment :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - It is
               of various types: 
 
               
               - a-in
               lead colicky abdominal pain: antispasmodic
               drugs;
 
               
               - b-in
               lead encephalopathy :
 
               
               - -treatment
               of convulsions by barbiturates,
 
               
               - -treatment
               of intracranial hypertension by the intravenous
               administration of a hypertonic solution. 
 
               
               - c-in
               paroxystic hypertension: blood pressure lowering
               drugs. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - In
               the case of renal impairment, peritoneal dialysis
               allows a significant and fast elimination of lead,
               avoiding kidney poisonous chelating drugs.
               
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - III-Treatment
               of Lead Impregnation : 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - In
               the case of lead impregnation, hazard control is a
               must (prevention measures, job change) and possibly,
               an EDTA treatment in the adult, 4g/day by mouth,
               during 5 to 10 days. By mouth, dimercaptosuccinic acid
               (DMSA) seems more active than EDTA. 
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - Edouard
               Bastarache M.D. (Occupational & Environmental
               Medicine) 
 
               
               - Author
               of « Substitutions for Raw Ceramic
               Materials»
 
               
               - edouardb@colba.net
 
               
               - Sorel-Tracy
 
               
               - Quebec
               
 
               
               - Canada
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - References
               :
 
               
               -  
 
               
               - 1-CSST-Quebec,
               Repertoire Toxicologique, 2002
 
               
               - 2-Toxicologie
               Industrielle et Intoxications Professionnelles,
               Lauwerys R. last edition.
 
               
               - 3-Potterycrafts-MSDS,
               United Kingdom, april 2002.
 
               
               - 4-Saxs
               Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, Lewis
               C., last edition.
 
               
               - 5-Medical
               Surveillance of the Lead Exposed Worker, Current
               Guidelines, Hipkins K.L. et al, AACHN Journal, July
               1998.
 
               
               - 6-Clinical
               Environmental Health and Toxic Exposures, Sullivan J.B
               and Krieger G.R., last edition.
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
               -  
 
               
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