- Summary
------------French
version
-
-
-
Inorganic
Lead and Ceramics
by
Edouard Bastarache
|
-
- Sources
:
-
- The
inorganic compounds which are of concern in ceramics
are :
-
- -basic
lead carbonate 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2,
- -lead
frits, including lead-boro silicate.
- -lead
oxides :
- -red
(minium) Pb3O4 ,
- -yellow
(litharge) PbO.
-
- Stability
:
-
- I-Lead
Carbonate :
- This
product is unstable under the following conditions :
when heated it decomposes at 400 degrees Celsius and
emits lead monoxide, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide.
-
- II-Lead
Frits :
- In
the relevant literature, we have not found any
information relating to thermal breakdown products for
the following lead frits: lead bisilicate, lead
sesquisilicate and lead-boro-silicate.
- On
the other hand lead silicate, PbO.SiO2, emits toxic
lead fumes when heated to decomposition.
-
- III-Red
Lead Oxide :
- This
product is unstable under the following conditions :
when heated to decomposition (more than 500 degrees
Celsius), there is release of oxygene and emission of
toxic lead fumes.
-
- IV-Yellow
Lead Oxide :
- This
product is unstable under the following conditions :
when heated between 300 to 400 degrees Celsius, it is
converted to lead tetroxide.
-
- Absorption
:
-
- Inorganic
lead is absorbed only by the respiratory and digestive
tracts, except for metallic lead, which can penetrate
the skin in a negligible way.
-
- Toxicological
Properties :
-
- I-Lead
Toxicokinetics :
-
- A-
Pulmonary absorption :
- 1-Pulmonary
absorption of lead depends on the size of particles; a
small proportion of particles of size greater than 0,5
µm is retained at the pulmonary level. The
retention of particles having a diameter smaller than
0,5 µm is inversely proportional to their size.
- 2-Pulmonary
absorption also depends on respiratory frequency.
- 3-
The pulmonary deposition rate of lead present in the
air is approximately 30 to 50%.
- 4-
Lead which penetrates deeply into the lungs is almost
completely absorbed. The rest of lead particles which
are found in the higher parts of the respiratory
tract, are directed towards the gastro-intestinal
system where they are ingested.
- 5-Lead
does not accumulate in the respiratory tract.
-
- B-Gastrointestinal
absorption :
- 1-Gastrointestinal
absorption of lead varies according to the
physiological state of the individual (fast, age) and
the type of lead compound ingested. Thus, the rate of
absorption may vary in the fasting adult from 5-15 %
to 60-80 %. It is approximately 30 to 50 % in the
child.
- 2-Absorption
is influenced by the size of the ingested particles
(the smallest being better absorbed).
- 3-Absorption
of lead, which takes place in the duodenal region of
the small intestine, seems to occur by a saturable
mechanism.
-
- C-Distribution
:
-
- 1-Independently
from the route of absorption, absorpbed lead passes
into the blood circulation where more than 90 % finds
itself bound to erythrocytes (it is fixed especially
inside the cell rather than on the membrane). The
remainder diffuses into the serum.
-
- 2-Studies
undertaken in man indicate that absorbed lead is
distributed primarily in 3 compartments: the first
compartment is blood, the second is made up of soft
tissues (central and peripheral nervous systems,
liver, kidneys and muscles) and the third one is
composed of bone tissue.
-
- a-Several
researchers have proposed refinements to this kinetic
model, it has thus been proposed to subdivide the
blood compartment into 4 in order to better take into
account lead kinetics in the plasma and in the
erythrocytes. It is also proposed to subdivide the
bone compartment into 2 in order to better reflect the
speed of turnover and bone tissue metabolism.
- b-Thereafter
a model was proposed taking into account the soft
tissues with which the exchanges are fast and those
with which they are slow.
-
- D-Metabolism
:
- Lead
is not metabolized in the body.
-
- E-Excretion
:
- 1-
Ingested lead that is not absorbed is directly
excreted in the feces.
- 2-Nearly
80 % of the absorbed lead is eliminated by the urinary
tract, approximately 16 % is eliminated via the bile
and the remainder is eliminated in the saliva, sweat,
hair and nails.There are significant inter-individual
variations in the capacity of lead elimination.
-
- F-Half-life
:
- 1-In
the adult, blood lead half-life is approximately 1
month.
- 2-The
half-life in soft tissues (such as central and
peripheral nervous systems, the liver, kidneys and
muscles) is approximately 40 to 60 days.
- 3-The
half-life in the bone compartment is approximately 20
to 30 years
- 4-The
whole body lead half-life depends on the body burden,
which itself is related to the duration of exposure of
workers.
-
- II-Interaction
:
-
- Lead
toxicokinetics and toxicological effects can be
affected by interactions with certain essential
elements and nutriments:
-
- A-The
administration of calcium and phosphorus, at
concentrations which can be found in an average meal,
decreases lead gastrointestinal absorption by a factor
of 6 in fasting adults.
- B-It
would also seem that the daily intake of food fibers,
thiamin and iron lowers blood lead level (BLL) in
exposed workers.
- C-Lead
absorption is reduced by a calcium or zinc intake,
probably by a competitive mechanism at the intestinal
level.
- D-Lead
absorption is enhanced by the intake of food high in
fat.
-
- III-Acute
Intoxication :
-
- Acute
intoxication is rare in the work environment.
-
- The
inhalation of significant lead amounts can cause
digestive disorders (vomiting, epigastric and
abdominal pain, diarrhoea and black stools), renal
disorders, hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders
(encephalopathy, intracranial hypertension, convulsive
coma).
-
- IV-Chronic
Intoxication :
-
- A-The
effects of lead intoxication in man are the same
whatever the route of entry into the body. They are
generally described in terms of internal dose (amounts
of lead in the blood ) rather than in terms of ambient
level of
- exposure
(mg/m³ or ppm).
-
- B-One
of the first symptoms of lead exposure is the
appearance of digestive disorders.
- This
results in colics (intense abdominal pains, nausea,
vomiting), constipation, anorexia and a loss of
weight.
-
- C-Articular
and muscular pains in the extremities are also
reported.
-
- D- A
blue coloured line has been observed on the gingival
tissues of people exposed to significant lead
concentrations.
-
- E-Lead
exerts certain blood effects. It induces anemia
(caused by a reduction in the lifespan of red cells
and by a fall of the synthesis of heme by enzymatic
inhibition). It also involves an increased production
of abnormal erythrocytes.
-
- F-Lead
has effects on the nervous system thus being able to
cause encephalopathy and peripheral neuropathy.
- The
first symptoms of encephalopathy can appear in the
weeks following initial exposure to lead; these are
irritability, lassitude, loss of appetite, reduction
in the attention,headaches, jerked movements of the
eyes, hallucinations, a deterioration of the cognitive
functions (reduction in the performance in certain
psychometric tests like, for example, eye-hand
coordination, skills of verbal reasoning, memory,
etc).
- Symptoms
may worsen, sometimes abruptly, and one can observe
delirium, convulsions, paralysis, coma and death.
Peripheral neuropathy can result in muscular tremors,
weakness of the upper limbs and paraesthesias of the
lower limbs (pins and needles, tingling).
-
- G-Workers
exposed to lead present an increased risk of chronic
nephrotoxicity.
- The
lead levels which can cause such an effect seem to be
a function of the duration of exposure. A review of
several studies seems to indicate that lead can cause
nephropathy at blood lead levels as low as 1,93
µmol/l.
- Certain
toxic effects are reversible whereas others are not. A
recent study suggests that the exposure to low lead
levels can cause renal problems in middle-age and old
age men.
-
- H-Some
studies suggest that there is a weak positive
correlation between blood lead level (BLL) and an
increase in blood pressure. However, it is currently
premature to draw conclusions on this subject.
-
- I-There
is some evidence that high lead doses could be
responsible for cardiac lesions and disturbances in
the electrocardiogram.
-
- J-According
to some studies, lead could weaken the immune system.
-
- Biological
Monitoring :
-
- I-Biological
parameter, biological index of exposure and time of
blood sampling :
A-Blood
lead level (BLL):
- Variable
according to different organizations, (time of blood
sampling is discretionary); the ACGIH proposes 1,45
µmol/L (level aiming at minimizing or preventing
the effects being able to result in a persistent
functional damage);
- the
WHO and Lauwerys propose 1,93 µmol/L (maximum
tolerable blood lead level); the level in non-exposed
individuals is < 0,50 µmol/L.
-
- B-Zinc
protoporphyrins (ZPP) :
- The
time of blood sampling must be at least one month
after the beginning of exposure. Lauwerys proposes
0,67 µmol/L in order to prevent certain health
effects. The level for non-exposed individuals is <
0,32 µmol/L.
-
- II-Other
Exposure Indicators :
- Urinary
aminolevulinic acid : an indicator of toxic effect;
this test is less sensitive than the measurement of
ZPP.
-
- III-Factors
to be considered for interpretation :
- -
these values apply only to exposures to metallic lead
or inorganic salts.
-
- A-BLL
:
- 1-possibility
of absorption by the digestive tract;
- 2-a
BLL of about 2,42 µmol/L is expected in workers
who are exposed, day after day, to lead air levels of
0,15 mg/m³ ;
-
- B-ZPP
:
- 1-hemolytic
anemia, iron deficiency (increased ZPP);
- 2-erythropoietic
protoporphyria (increased ZPP); increased
carboxyhemoglobin, if the analysis of ZPP is carried
out by hematofluorometry (method used by the IRSST,
Quebec), it involves an undervaluation of the
concentration of ZPP.
-
-
- IV-Correlation
between lead blood concentrations and their toxic
effects :
-
-
Blood
lead level (µmol/l)
|
Effect
|
<
0,48
|
Blood
lead level of a nonexposed person
|
0,97
à 2,90
|
Increase
in the concentration of erythrocyte
protoporphyrins
|
>
1,93
|
Increase
in the urinary concentration of
coproporphyrin
|
2,41
à 2,90
|
Chronic
encephalopathy in the child
|
>
3,86
|
Chronic
encephalopathy in the adult
|
2,90
à 3,86
|
Peripheral
neuropathy
|
3,38
à 4,80
|
Nephropathies
|
3,86
à 4,80
|
Anemia
|
3,86
à 14,5
|
Acute
encephalopathy
|
-
- V-Conversion
factor for blood lead level :
-
- µg/l
x 0,004826 = µmol/l
-
- VI-Sensitive
populations :
-
- A-People
suffering from a neurological dysfonction;
- B-People
suffering from a renal disease;
- C-People
having certain genetic diseases, such as thalassemia,
glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency,
porphyrias, an excessive activity of the ALA synthase.
- D-Children;
- E-Pregnant
or breast-feeding women;
- F-The
embryo or foetus;
- G-Elderlies;
- H-Smokers;
- I-Alcoholics.
-
- Carcinogenesis
and Mutagenesis :
-
- I-Metallic
Lead :
-
- ACGIH
evaluation : Confirmed animal carcinogen (group A3).
-
- II-Basic
lead carbonate, yellow and red lead oxide :
-
- IARC.evaluation:
Probably carcinogenic to humans (group 2B).
- ACGIH
evaluation: Confirmed animal carcinogen (group A3).
-
- Occupational
Hygiene :
-
- I-IDLH
(Immediate Danger to Life and Health)
:
-
- A-Basic
Lead Carbonate :
- 100
Pb mg/m³ as Pb.
-
- B-Red
Lead Oxide :
- 100
Pb mg/m³ as Pb.
-
- C-Yellow
Lead Oxide :
- 100
mg/m³ as Pb.
-
- II-Evaluation
of Exposure :
-
- Exposure
limit in Quebec :
- Valeur
d'exposition moyenne pondérée (VEMP) :
0,15 mg/m³
-
- Note
- Non-conventional
schedule : Weekly
- Comments
- Limit
for dusts and fumes, expressed as Pb (lead).
-
- Prevention
:
-
- I-
Technical Methods :
- Main
measures are as follows:
-
- A-Work
organization :
- Operations
involving a hazard of lead exposure should not be
dispersed in the factory, but on the contrary, put
together.
-
- B-Ventilation
:
- Primarily,
local aspiration systems at the place of generation of
lead dusts, fumes and vapors.
-
- C-General
cleanliness of workstations :
- Regular
washing with water to avoid accumulation of lead dust.
-
- D-Sanitary
equipment :
- To
allow for adequate personal hygiene: sinks, showers,
different lockers for work and town clothes, refectory
away from workstations.
-
- E-
Regular evaluation of lead concentration in the air
:
- It
must be done at the workstation. Since in the
industrial settings, the main route of entry is the
respiratory tract, the mesurement of lead in the air
allows to estimate the exposure hazard.
-
- F-Personal
protection :
- 1-A
respiratory protection apparatus should be worn if the
concentration in the work environment is greater than
the VEMP (0,15 filter mg/m³)
- Masks:
they must be regularly cleaned and filters replaced.
- 2-Personal
hygiene: nobody should smoke nor eat in workshops. One
must also incite workers to wash their hands regularly
and to use shower/baths after each working day.
Working clothes will not be carried home.
-
- II-
Medical Methods :
-
- A-Pre-employment
medical examination :
-
- Subjects
suffering from anemia, kidney diseases; pregnant or
breast-feeding women, should be kept away from lead
exposure. According to Cramer (1966), alcoholism would
make workers more sensitive to the toxic action of
lead.
-
- B-Periodical
examination :
-
- It is
necessary to seek and recognize the signs of lead
impregnation and the first symptoms and clinical signs
of lead poisoning, and to prescribe the biological
tests cited above such as BLL and ZPP.
- In
the case of chronic intoxication, tests for kidney
function can also be indicated.
-
- In
the USA, the Action Level (AL) is .03 mg/m3 of air.
The general industry standard requires that all
employees exposed to or above the AL for more than 30
days per year take part in a medical surveillance
program provided by the employer, regardless of
whether respiratory protection is used. Routine
measurements of BLL and ZPP supplement the information
provided by air lead measurements to guide prevention
efforts.
-
- C-Medical
Evaluations :
- 1-General
industry standard :
- a- A
medical examination must be undergone by all the
candidates for employment where an exposure to lead
higher than the AL during more than 30 days per year
is encountered. This examination must comprise a
clinical evaluation and laboratory tests.
- -Clinical
Evaluation :General and lead-specific history and
physical examination with special attention to
hematological, neurological, (central and peripheral
), pulmonary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,
musculoskeletal, renal, and reproductive
systems.Medical clearance to wear respirator, if used,
applies to all categories.
- -Laboratory
Testing: it must include BLL, ZPP, blood count with
blood smear, urea and plasma creatinine , complete
urinalysis. A sperm analysis or pregnancy test could
be made if requested by the employee, and any other
test the physician deems necessary.
- -Periodicity:
it will be necessary to repeat BLL and ZPP
measurements every 6 months.
- b-
When the last BLL was = or > 1.93 µmol/L. but
lower than the threshold recommended to carry out
Medical Removal Protection.
- -Clinical
Evaluation: complete evaluation as described above,
annually.
- -Laboratory
Testing : complete lab panel if not done within last
12 months (see above). Repeat BLL and ZPP every two
(2) months until two (2) consecutive BLLs are <
1.93 µmol/L.
- c-
When a single BLL is = or > 2.896 µmol/L. or
when the average of the last three (3) BLLs, or of all
the BLLs of the previous six (6) months are = or >
than 2.413 µmol/L. (whichever covers a longer
time period), Medical Removal Protection becomes
mandatory.
- -Clinical
Evaluation: as soon as the Medical Removal Protection
is initiated. See the clinical evaluation described
above.
- -Laboratory
Testing: Complete lab panel (see above). Repeat BLL
and ZPP at least monthly until two (2) consecutive
BLLs are =or< 1.93 µmol/L.
- d-
When an employee reports signs or symptoms of lead
toxiciy, desires advice about effects of lead exposure
(on reproductive system, child bearing, etc.), has
increased risk of material impairment to health due to
lead exposure, or has difficulty breathing with
respirator use.
- -Clinical
Evaluation: as soon as possible (see
above).
- -Laboratory
Testing: as deemed appropriate by the physician based
on individual case needs.
-
- 2-Construction
Industry Standard :
- It
will not be discussed here because it is
irrelevant.
-
- D-
Medical Removal Protection :
- The
physician must recommend to the employer that an
employee be removed from lead exposure and enter a
Medical Removal Protection program if any of the
following conditions are met.
-
- 1-
General Industry Standard :
- a-A
single BLL=or> 2.896 µmol/L, or
- b-An
average of the last three (3) BLLs or of all BBLs over
the previous 6 months (whichever covers a longer
period of time) is=or>2.413 µmol/L.
- c-The
employee has a « detected medical condition
» that places him or her at increased risk of
« material impairment to health ». The
physician is given the discretion to make such a
determination on an individual case basis.
- d-When
the physician detects symptoms and/or clinical signs
usually associated with lead poisoning even if the BLL
is lower than the standards cited above, or when the
employee is pregnant.
- e-When
the employee is withdrawn from work, Laboratory
Testing (Biological Monitoring) must be done at least
once per month.
- f-When
the BLL is twice consecutively = or < 1.93
µmol/L. the physician may recommend the return to
work provided that the employer has taken proper steps
to control lead exposure and that the symptoms/
clinical signs of the intoxication have disappeared.
- g-During
Medical Removal Protection a physician may recommend
that an employee, if physically able, returns to work
in a place where there is no lead exposure, or in a
place where lead exposure is below the AL (Action
Level) which is below .03 mg/m3.
-
- 2-Construction
Industry Standard :
- It
will not be discussed here because it is
irrelevant.
-
- Treatment
-
- I-Acute
Intoxication :
-
- It
consists of :
- a
gastric lavage with a solution precipitating lead in
the form of insoluble sulphate, for example :
- -
soda sulphate,
- -
magnesia sulphate aa 40g,
- -
water ad 1 liter;
- -
daily injection of calcium EDTA, in association with
BAL in the child;
- -
need to treat shock, especially by the parenteral
rehydration.
-
- II-Chronic
Intoxication :
-
- A-Chelation
Therapy :
-
- 1-EDTA
(ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) is a chelating agent
capable of fixing lead, calcium and other cations to
form a non-ionized complex. To avoid hypocalcemy, a
salt of calcium or disodium should be given. Lead (but
also other metals: zinc, copper, iron) will replace
calcium. The soluble complex lead-EDTA is quickly
excreted by the kidneys (glomerular filtration).
- Since
EDTA is toxic to the kidneys, especially to the
glomerular basal membrane, its administration should
be done with prudence in the presence of renal
ailments. Renal function should be monitored during
treatment. The maximum amount to be given should not
exceed 50mg/kg/day.
- Treatment
must last 5 days and if urinary lead remains high, it
can be repeated after a period of rest of at least 4
to 5 days.
-
- 2-DTPA
(diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid trisodium salt,
monocalcic) seems slightly more effective than EDTA.
-
- 3-DMSA
(dimercaptosuccinic acid) given orally in gradually
increasing amounts has been recommended. Its
administration is more effective than EDTA when the
presence of lead in the digestive tract can be
excluded.
-
- 4-Double
chelation therapy with EDTA and DMSA has been
recommended in the case of significant intoxication.
-
- 5-In
the case of lead encephalopathy in the child, it seems
that the combined administration of BAL and EDTA is
preferable to EDTA alone.
-
- Finally,
let us remember that the preventive administration of
a chelating agent is to be prohibited. Only the
control of the work environment represents the method
of adequate prevention. A drug cannot replace
industrial hygiene measures.
-
- B-Symptomatic
Treatment :
-
- It is
of various types:
- a-in
lead colicky abdominal pain: antispasmodic
drugs;
- b-in
lead encephalopathy :
- -treatment
of convulsions by barbiturates,
- -treatment
of intracranial hypertension by the intravenous
administration of a hypertonic solution.
- c-in
paroxystic hypertension: blood pressure lowering
drugs.
-
- In
the case of renal impairment, peritoneal dialysis
allows a significant and fast elimination of lead,
avoiding kidney poisonous chelating drugs.
-
- III-Treatment
of Lead Impregnation :
-
- In
the case of lead impregnation, hazard control is a
must (prevention measures, job change) and possibly,
an EDTA treatment in the adult, 4g/day by mouth,
during 5 to 10 days. By mouth, dimercaptosuccinic acid
(DMSA) seems more active than EDTA.
-
-
-
-
- Edouard
Bastarache M.D. (Occupational & Environmental
Medicine)
- Author
of « Substitutions for Raw Ceramic
Materials»
- edouardb@colba.net
- Sorel-Tracy
- Quebec
- Canada
-
-
- References
:
-
- 1-CSST-Quebec,
Repertoire Toxicologique, 2002
- 2-Toxicologie
Industrielle et Intoxications Professionnelles,
Lauwerys R. last edition.
- 3-Potterycrafts-MSDS,
United Kingdom, april 2002.
- 4-Saxs
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, Lewis
C., last edition.
- 5-Medical
Surveillance of the Lead Exposed Worker, Current
Guidelines, Hipkins K.L. et al, AACHN Journal, July
1998.
- 6-Clinical
Environmental Health and Toxic Exposures, Sullivan J.B
and Krieger G.R., last edition.
-
-
-
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Avril 1999
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